Various pens: A. Unsharpened reed pen B, D, E. Sharpened reed pens C. Java pen F. Bamboo pen G. Kargi kalem (thick reed pen) H, I, J. Wooden pen
PENS
The reed used both as a musical instrument (the ney) and as a pen is possibly the only tool evocative of the mystic atmosphere of the Islamic and oriental world. Reeds gathered from the marshy banks of lakes and rivers are far from being usable as pens in their raw state. These yellowish white reeds are placed in manure which maintains a constant organic temperature
to dry. As they harden they change color according to the type of reed, becoming reddish brown, light or dark brown, or even black. The end is cut into a nib, which requires recutting every so often. In the case of long texts such as Korans, this causes a problem, because even the slightest difference in the width of the nib after recutting noticeably alters the
appearance of the writing, which constitutes a serious aesthetic flaw, particularly in the case of nesih and similar fine hands. Therefore, when writing long texts in fine script, pens made from the hard, straight and slender stipule, black in color, which grows from the base of the leaves of a tropical tree in Java is used. The tips of these pens, which are known as
Cava kalemi, are extremely hardwearing. To write with thicker lines, correspondingly thicker reeds the diameter of a ney are used to make pens known as kargi
kalem, or hard bamboo stems may be employed. However, even these are not large enough to write some of the celî scripts, for which pens of the desired size carved of wood and known as agaç kalem or tahta kalem
are used.
Extremely large celî inscriptions cannot be written directly by hand at all, since a pen large enough to produce the letters would be too heavy to hold and supplying an ink flow would be impossible. Such inscriptions are first written on a smaller scale and then enlarged by means of squaring. To nib a reed pen, it is laid in the palm of the left hand, and cut away on the slant until the central cavity and wall take on an almond shape. Since this flat part projects like a tongue, it is known as the kalem dili. The tip of this flat section is then cut across to obtain the desired width. The splitting of the nib to a depth of several centimetres is known as kalem şakki. When performing this operation it is essential that the split be exactly parallel to the pen shaft. The crack thus formed serves to contain a store of ink, which flows down to the nib as the pen writes. When splitting the nib with a penknife or kalemtiraş, the pen is laid over the groove of a makta. Both these items are described in detail on the following page.
Cutting and shaping the nib, also carried out on the makta, is a process known as kalemi makta'a vurmak or katt-i kalem. A newly sharpened pen produces an extremely clear-cut hand, but as the nib wears down the letters become flawed, and it must be sharpened on the makta again. Cutting the nib on the slant was the invention of Yâkûtü'l-Musta'simî (?-698/1298) and results in the writing slanting towards the writer, who continues to hold the pen in a natural position. The ta'lîk pen is less sharply slanted than the sülüs, but more so than the nesih, while the rik'a nib is only very slightly slanted. Holding the pen so that the slanted edge of the nib rests fully on the paper and moving it downwards produces a fine line, and moving it from right to left results in a thick line. Sometimes the calligrapher turns the pen in his hand to produce different aesthetic effects. Since the size of the characters is measured in points, and the size of a point depends on the width of the nib, the pen is the most vital element of aesthetic quality in calligraphy.
Pens are sometimes kept in cases containing an inkwell at one end known as divit, and sometimes in cylindrical or rectangular boxes known as kalemdan, which may be plain or decorative. The cylindrical type of kalemdan is known as a kubur. Small protective covers were used to prevent the pen nibs from becoming damaged or worn when not in use. The pen is mentioned in the first verses of the Koran to be revealed, and sûrah LXVIII is entitled The Pen. Both this fact and the benefit to humanity of this instrument meant that it was treated with reverence, and even when a pen had been sharpened so often that it was too small to use, it was not thrown away at random, but either tossed onto a rooftop or buried in a spot where people were not likely to tread. The chips produced while sharpening the nib were treated with similar respect, and when a certain amount had accumulated were buried in an out-of-the-way place. There were even calligraphers who collected the chips from their pens throughout their lives, and asked after that their death their bodies be washed with water boiled with these chips.
PENKNIFE
The kalemtiraş or penknives used by Turkish calligraphers did not have a closing blade. The blade, known as a
tig, is mounted in a handle made of precious materials. The bolster which links blade to handle is known as a
parazvana. The penknife varies from 10 cm to 20 cm in length.
MAKTA
The makta is a bone or ivory tablet 10-20 cm long, 2-3 cm thick and 2-3 cm wide. Sometimes it was made of tortoiseshell or mother-of-pearl. If the pen is split or sharpened on a hard surface such as glass, marble or metal, the cutting edge of the blade is blunted and in time becomes unusable. Since the above materials are soft by comparison, they do not harm the
blade, but nor are they so soft that they become badly scratched by use. On top and towards one end of the makta is a small protruding part containing a groove as wide as the diameter of the pen. The pen handle is placed in this groove which keeps it gripped firmly in place, while the penknife blade is held parallel to the pen to form the split, either from the inside
or outside. The pen is also placed in this groove when sharpening the nib. Some of the finest makta were made by the Mevlevi dervishes, using knives, styluses and fretsaws. These were exquisitely decorated with scrollwork, floriate designs, inscriptions and emblems representing the Mevlevi headdress.
PAPER
In the past, paper was not ready to use when it was bought as it is today. Whether it came from China, India, Bukhara or Europe, or from Turkish paper mills at Kâgidhâne (literally "paper mill", a district of Istanbul),
Yalova, Bursa or Beykoz, paper had a rough surface which did not permit a pen to move over the surface smoothly, and on some types the ink
would seep across the surface. Before it could be used, the paper had to be treated. Because this "raw paper", which was generally white, tired the eyes, it was first dyed the desired colour before being sized
(âhâr) and finally polished (mühre), a process of vigorous rubbing to fix the size and smooth down the surface, which thus becomes as glossy as if
it had been ironed. Mainly vegetable colours are used to dye the paper. The dye material is boiled in water, and then the dye solution is poured into a pan. The paper is then dipped into the dye, which it absorbs, and set aside to dry. Alternatively, the dye can be applied with a sponge or
cottonwool, but this method can result in an unevenly coloured surface
revealing each stroke of the sponge. Some of the substances used for this purpose and the colours they produce are as follows: tea (cream), white logwood (red), purple logwood (purple), confectioner's soot (off-white), and onion skin (reddish). The most popular colour is cream. Once the paper has been dyed it is time to size it.
Although modern papers are sold ready polished, once something has been written on them in ink, it is impossible to remove it because the ink is absorbed by the paper. The size applied to paper in the past, however, formed a protective coating which prevented the ink soaking into the paper itself, and meant that mistakes could be erased by wiping with a piece of damp cottonwool, scraping or licking. The latter is the origin of the expression still used in Turkish today to describe a well educated person: "He has licked a lot of ink."
The commonest method of sizing paper was to spread one or two layers of alum mixed with eggwhite over the surface. A thin mixture of starch or flour boiled with water could also be used. If the raw paper is not polished within a week of being sized, it will begin to crack while being rubbed, so wasting all the effort put into treating the paper. The çakmak mühre used to polish paper is an instrument with two handles on either side of a raised section, into which a very smooth prismatic flintstone is set. A sheet of paper is placed on a large wooden board known as a mühre tahtasi or pesterk, which is preferably made of linden wood because of its fine grain. It is essential that this board be perfectly smooth, slightly concave and without any joints. So that the mühre glides easily over the surface, the paper is first rubbed with a piece of woollen fabric rubbed with dry soap, then gripping it by the two wooden handles so that the flintstone is downwards, the çakmak mühre is rubbed hard over the paper in various directions, allowing the paper to shift freely in the process. The paper begins to shine immediately, and is ironed smooth. The polished sheets of paper are then stacked and weighted down. Since sized paper improves with age, it is then left for around the year, after which the pen will glide smoothly over the surface.
Only if the paper is allowed to age in this way does it become possible to correct errors by scraping, licking or wiping with a damp sponge. It is due to this property of sized paper that all official records in the Ottoman Empire were written on unsized but polished paper, so as to prevent falsification of documents. In order to write on sized paper it is necessary to wipe it lightly with a chalky broadcloth rag beforehand. The chalk eradicates the slippery finish created by the soap rubbed onto the paper when it was being polished, and removes any traces of grease transferred to the paper by handling, since ink will not take on a greasy surface.
LAMPBLACK INK
Lampblack ink (is mürekkebi) which was generally used in Turkey in the past, particularly by calligraphers, should not be confused with Indian or Chinese ink. The method of making this ink and its applications are very different. The lampblack which is the principal ingredient of this ink is obtained by burning such substances as linseed oil, beeswax, naphtha or
kerosene. The soot obtained from pitch pine or olive oil is too greasy and does not make good quality ink. Gum Arabic is the other main ingredient of lampblack ink, and serves to fix the carbon particles on the paper. Many formulas for making it are to be found in old documents, illustrating the way in which the method developed over time. The best formula consists of
lampblack, a solution of gum arabic and distilled water, which have to be beaten together for a long time. In the case of fine manuscripts, the ink was left to dry naturally, but for official correspondence a fine sand known as rih or rîk was sprinkled over the writing. A variety of sparkling sand was known as Beç rihi because it was imported from Vienna. Grains of
this sand left adhering to the ink created an attractive glittery effect.
The lampblack ink which lettered people carried around with them wherever they went in portable inkwells was far superior to modern inks because it never faded. However, it cannot be used in modern fountain pens, although it is perfect for the reed pen. None of the black inks available today can match it, because lampblack ink is a suspension of carbon particles which do not dissolve but remain suspended in the water with the aid of the gum. When used to write on sized paper, it remains on the surface, and can be wiped, scraped or licked away, a property which was essential for scribes in the past. The inks used today are all solutions, which means that they are absorbed by even sized paper, leaving a stain and making it impossible to erase errors. Therefore, they are not suitable for use by calligraphers.
COLOURED INKS
The most common among the many different coloured inks used in Turkish calligraphy in the past are yellow (zirnik: orpiment or yellow arsenic), red (lâl), white (üstübeç: white lead), and gold (zer). Yellow ink: The natural pigment known as orpiment or yellow arsenic is ground with sodium, then mixed with a solution of gum arabic. Red ink: Lotur (this substance
has not been identified), soapwort, alum and water are boiled together, then the strained water is mixed with dried and finely ground cochineal. This is boiled again, and produces ink of a beautiful glowing red. White ink: This is made in the same way as yellow ink, except that white lead is substituted for orpiment. White ink is principally used to write the sûrah
headings on a gold ground in illuminated korans. Gold ink: High carat gold leaf is ground to a fine powder in a thick solution of gum arabic or honey as a binder, in a porcelain dish. Once this laborious task is over, it is rinsed in water to remove the binder. The gold dust precipitated in another bowl is mixed with water containing gelatine when it is needed. The
gold ink is brushed onto the pen nib. Gold ink applied in this way to manuscripts is known as zer-endûd.
HOKKA
The word hokka is an Arabic term meaning "little box". The inkwell or hokka was a part of every writing set or box when reed pens were still in use. It was also part of the portable inkstands known as divit which men of education carried around with them. Inkwells could be made of china, glass or most frequently of metals such as brass, copper or silver.
Metal inkwells were usually screwed to the base of cylindrical pen holders known as kubur, or projected from one end of prismatic pen cases. All pen cases incorporating an inkwell were known as divit or devat. Ink was not poured directly into these inkwells, but instead a small wad of raw silk fibre known as lika was first pressed into the inkwell and the ink poured
over it. The raw silk soaked up the ink like a sponge, and when the pen was pressed lightly onto the silk, sufficient ink was transferred. This method had the advantage that even if the inkwell were turned upside down the ink did not spill.
MISTAR
The positioning of letters and words and their arrangement along a straight line is subject to certain rules in calligraphy. In the past Turkish calligraphers employed a simple instrument known as a mistar to rule lines on the page. The spacing of lines on the manuscript page is calculated according to the size of a point produced by the reed pen which is to be used,
and the lines are then drawn on a piece of cardboard matching the size of the pages to be used. Holes are made with a pin at the beginning and end of each line, and fine silk thread is then threaded through the holes and stretched taut. There must be no knots in the thread. The left and right margins are also marked by vertical threads.
The mistar is then placed with the horizontal threads marking the lines uppermost, and a sheet of sized paper placed on top of it. With newly washed hands to remove all traces of grease, the paper is gently rubbed all over with the fingers. This produces slightly raised lines where the threads lay beneath the page, and these serve as guidelines when writing.
ZIR-I MESK
In the past, calligraphers did not work sitting at tables, but sat on a divan or floor cushion with their right knee raised, and wrote resting the paper against their knee. The paper was placed on a flexible pad consisting of several sheets of rough paper measuring approximately 20 x 25 cm called zîr-i meşk. This supported the paper sufficiently to keep it at an
angle of 90 degrees to the pen and prevented it bending under the pressure exerted while writing. The use of a hard board was deliberately avoided so as to ensure the free movement of the hand over the paper. The quality of all these pieces of equipment and materials was a vital factor in enabling the calligrapher of to produce faultless work.